Indian Philosophy
The systems of thought and reflection that were developed by the civilizations of the Indian subcontinent. They include both orthodox (astika) systems, namely, the Nyaya, Vaisesika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva-mimamsa, and Vedanta schools of philosophy, and unorthodox (nastika) systems, such as Buddhism and Jainism. Indian thought has been concerned with various philosophical problems,
Mauriac, Claude
A son of the novelist Fran�ois Mauriac, he was able to make the acquaintance of many notable French writers at his father's house and later during his career as a journalist.
Heredia, Jos� Maria De
The son of a wealthy Spanish coffee plantation owner and a French mother, Heredia was educated at Senlis, near Paris. He claimed France as �the country of my mind and heart�; and, although he went home after finishing his schooling, he quickly returned to Paris and studied at the
Antae
Also spelled �Antes� federation of eastern Slavic nomadic tribes known by the 3rd century AD, dwelling in southern Russia between the Dnieper and Dniester rivers. A powerful people with highly developed agriculture, handicrafts, and ironwork, the Antae fought the Goths, who were fleeing westward from the Huns in the 4th century. In the early 6th century they joined in Slavic raids against
Puffbird
Puffbirds feed on flying insects. They resemble their close relatives the jacamars in habits
P�tain, (henri-)philippe
Born into a family of farmers in northern France, P�tain, after attending the local village school and a religious
Mahan, Larry E.
In 1962 Mahan won the all-around Oregon championship and also won the bareback bronc and bulldogging
Asansol
City, West Bengal state, northeastern India. Situated in the heart of the Raniganj coalfield, it is the centre of the Kulti-Burnpur industrial complex. Asansol is connected by the Grand Trunk Road and by rail with Calcutta, Durgapur, and Burdwan. The city is an important coal-trading and railway centre, with large railway workshops and a railway colony. Its major industries
Atat�rk, Kemal
Vamik D. Volkan and Norman Itzkowitz, The Immortal Atat�rk (1984, reissued 1986), is a psychobiography. Lord Kinross (Patrick Kinross), Atat�rk: The Rebirth of a Nation (1964, reissued 1998; also published as Atat�rk: A Biography of Mustafa Kemal, Father of Modern Turkey, 1965, reissued 1992), is still worthwhile. Abraham Bodurgil (comp.), Kemal Atat�rk: A Centennial Bibliography (1881 - 1981) (1984), is a comprehensive bibliography. Andrew Mango, Atat�rk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey (2000), reexamines Turkish sources.
Ijtihad
In Islamic law, the independent or original interpretation of problems not precisely covered by the Qur'an, Hadith (traditions concerning the Prophet's life and utterances), and ijma' (scholarly consensus). In the early Muslim community every adequately qualified jurist had the right to exercise such original thinking, mainly ra'y (personal judgment) and qiyas (analogical
Sea Hare
Any marine gastropod of the family Aplysiidae (subclass Opisthobranchia) that is characterized by a shell reduced to a flat plate, prominent tentacles (resembling rabbit ears), and a smooth or warty body. Sea hares eat large seaweeds. An example is the 10-centimetre (4-inch) spotted sea hare (Aplysia dactylomela), a ring-spotted green species living in grassy shallows
Lenormant, Fran�ois
French Assyriologist and numismatist who recognized, from cuneiform inscriptions, a language now known as Akkadian that proved valuable to the understanding of Mesopotamian civilization 3,000 years before the Christian era. He published his first archaeological paper at 14 and went on to become a scholar of wide achievement. He published La Monnaie
Paragonite
Mica mineral similar to muscovite, a basic silicate of sodium and aluminum; a member of the common mica group. It was thought to be an uncommon mineral, but experiment and investigation have shown that it is widespread in metamorphic schists and phyllites, in gneisses, in quartz veins, and in fine-grained sediments. It seems probable that much paragonite has been mistaken
Space Law
The evolution of space law began with U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower's introduction of the concept into the United Nations in 1957, in connection with disarmament negotiations. Following the successful launchings of the Soviet satellite
China, Struggles within the two-party coalition
After Sun's death the KMT went through a period of inner conflict, although it progressed steadily, with Russian help, in bringing the Kwangtung base under its control. The conflict was caused primarily by the radicalization of the party under the influence of the Communists. They organized labour unions and peasant associations and pushed class struggle and the
Bydgoszcz Canal
Polish �Kanal Bydgoski�, German �Bromberger-Kanal� canal in Bydgoszcz wojew�dztwo (province), north-central Poland. It extends for 17 miles (27 km) between Naklo (west) and the inland port-city of Bydgoszcz (east) between the Notec and Brda rivers and links the Vistula River basin with that of the Oder. Construction of the 64-foot- (20-metre-) wide canal was completed in 1774 under Frederick II, who had annexed the region to Prussia in 1772.
Amrouche, Jean
As a young man, Amrouche published Cendres (1934; �Cinders
Pythian Games
In ancient Greece, various athletic and musical competitions held in honour of Apollo, chiefly those at Delphi. The musicians' contest there dated from very early times. In 582 BC it was made quadrennial, and athletic events including foot and chariot races were added in emulation of the Olympic Games. Open to all Greeks, the contests were held either at the Delphic shrine
Poyet, Guillaume
After practicing successfully as a barrister at Angers and Paris, he was instructed by Louise of Savoy, mother of King Francis I, to uphold her rights against the constable Charles, Duke de Bourbon, in 1521. This was the beginning of his fortunes.
Arartree
A pyramidal tree 12 to 15 metres (about 40 to 50 feet) tall, the arartree has fragrant, brown or reddish-brown wood that has long been popular for furniture and cabinetmaking. The tree also yields large quantities
Shaker Furniture
Furniture designed for the religious colonies of Shakers founded in America in the last quarter of the 18th century, characterized by austerity of decoration and truth to materials. Deeply dedicated to ideals of communal living and asceticism, the Shakers designed and constructed furniture that reflected their belief that to make a thing well was in itself an
V�r�smarty, Mih�ly
Born into an impoverished noble family, V�r�smarty soon had to provide for himself. From the age
Asbury, Francis
After limited schooling Asbury was licensed as a local preacher, and at the age of 21 he was admitted to the Wesleyan Conference. For four years
Procurator
Latin �Procurator�, plural �Procuratores� government financial agent in ancient Rome. From the reign of the emperor Augustus (27 BC - AD 14), procurators were regularly appointed to official posts in the imperial administration of the provinces or in the departments of the imperial government concerning such matters as the grain supply, the mint, and the mines. Procurators of provinces supervised imperial finances
Claesz, Pieter
Also called �Pieter Claesz Van Haarlem � Dutch painter who achieved a striking simplicity and atmospheric quality in still-life representations. Avoiding the crowded compositions and strong local colouring of the Mannerist tradition, he concentrated on the monochrome �breakfast piece,� the depiction of a simple meal
Godavari River
Sacred river of central India. It rises in the Western Ghats 50 miles (80 km) from the Arabian Sea and flows generally eastward across the Deccan Plateau, along the Maharashtra - Andhra Pradesh border and across Andhra Pradesh state, turning southeastward for the last 200 miles (320 km) of its course before reaching the Bay of Bengal. There it empties via its two mouths: the Gautami
Aurignacian Culture
Toolmaking industry and artistic tradition of Upper Paleolithic Europe that followed the Mousterian industry, was contemporary with the Perigordian, and was succeeded by the Solutrean. The Aurignacian culture was marked by a great diversification and specialization of tools, including the invention of the burin, or engraving tool, that made much of the art
Skate
First production-model nuclear-powered attack submarine of the U.S. Navy. Launched and commissioned in 1957, it was similar to the first nuclear-powered submarine, the Nautilus, but smaller, displacing only 2,360 tons. Like the Nautilus, the Skate and the three other boats in its class incorporated nuclear propulsion into a streamlined �Guppy�-style hull that had been adapted
Carthage, Exarchate Of
The exarch (governor), appointed by the emperor, was endowed with unlimited military and civil
Biblical Literature, Jewish sects and parties
From both the New Testament and extrabiblical material the main religious groups or parties in Palestinian Judaism may be discerned. Such descriptions, however, may be somewhat biassed or apologetic. Philo, an Alexandrian Jewish philosopher (died c. AD 40), Josephus, a Jewish apologist to the Romans (died c. 100), and sectarian writings found at Qumran near the Dead Sea in 1947 that date
